Byzantine Empire 330- 1453 A.D.

Byzantine Empire 330- 1453 A.D.

It started in 330 A.D when Roman Emperor Constantine I chose “Byzantium” (Greek site as new Roman capital and gave it name “Constantinople”. Constantine 5 years earlier declared Christianity as the official religion of Rome; citizens of Constantine were Christians whereas Eastern Roman Empire identified them as Romans.   (Slide 1)

slide 1

Byzantine Empire is divided into three periods

1.      Early Byzantine  324 AD- 726 AD

2.      Middle Byzantine 843 AD- 1204 AD

3.      Late Byzantine 1261- 1453 AD

Early Byzantine 324 AD- 726 AD

This period starts with the founding of Constantinople in 324 and ends with the destruction of images used in religious worship (iconoclasm) under Leo III in 726 AD.

Middle Byzantine 843 AD- 1204 AD

It begins with the rejection of iconoclasm and ends with Western crusaders occupation of Constantinople.

Late Byzantine 1261-1453

This period corresponds to the two centuries 

i.                    After the Byzantine recaptured Constantinople 1261

ii.                  Final loss in 1453  to the Ottoman Turks- conversion of churches to mosques

Early Byzantine period is also called as “Golden Age” of early Byzantine art. It started with the succession of Justinian in 537. (Justinian was a Byzantine Emperor from 527-565 A.D.)

Some of the important artworks survive before Justinian’s reign especially ivories and illuminated manuscripts. Before Justinian Archangel Michael was a master craver, he produced largest Byzantine ivory panel. This panel depicts Saint Michael the Archangel. (slide 2)

The inscription on the top of the panel means “receive these gifts”

Characteristics which reveal Roman influences

·         Flowing and detailed drapery

·         Incised (engraved) wings                               Facial expressions

·         Byzantine sculptors did not focus on natural representation.

·         In this panel one can see that the figure is of same size as of the arch. Michael’s foot lies on three steps at a time.

·          His lower body in-front of the base of the column and his arms on the top end of the column.

·         Three dimensional qualities were also not present. This figure is engraved and carved into the panel.

Another example which survived before Justinian period was an illustration from a manuscript (slide 3)

Anicia Juliana between Magnanimity and Prudence, folio 6, Vienna Dioskorides,  ca. 512

Vienna Dioskorides was the earliest surviving manuscript. It was an encyclopedia of medicinal herbs called De Materia Medica early 6^th century copy. This book has 498 illustrations- all images of plants. These illustrations were different from Byzantine paintings and mosaics of religious subjects.

This illustration features a portrait of Anicia Juliana in an eight point star and circle frame. Anicia is shown enthroned between personifications of Magnanimity and Prudence, with a kneeing figure labeled Gratitude of the Arts at her feet. The princess holds a book in her left hand, probably this “De Materia Medica”

Justinian Period 527-565 (Byzantine’s Golden Age)

Christianity became the official religion of Constantinople but Justinian was the one who proclaimed that Christianity should only be the lawful religion, also called as Orthodox Christianity.

Orthodox Christianity means Trinity, Father, Son and Hole Spirit. Equality.

Example 1: Barberini Ivory

Justinian art was both religious and secular. This was a political subject matter panel. It was carved in five parts. In the center is the emperor, identified as Justinian, riding on a horse, while a barbarian is shown half hidden behind the Justinian. Dynamic twisting posture of horse and rider and the motif of the spear- show influence of Roman Imperial works.

At the bottom of the panel a rectangular piece shows people giving tribute. Behind them are animals are shows lion, elephant, tiger. These animals are mainly found in Africa and Asia and these were the sites of Justinian conquest.

On the left rectangular piece Roman soldier carries a statuette. The source of emperor’s strength comes from the upper piece where two angels are shown and in the center Christ is shown holding a cross in one hand and with his right hand’s gesture it shows that as if he is approving Justinian’s act.

Another of Justinian’s great masterpiece was “Hagia Sophia”. He was an ambitious builder. In Constantinople he restored or built more than 30 churches. His monuments defined the Byzantine style in architecture forever.  (slide 4)

Hagia Sophia is also known as “Church of the Holy Wisdom”. It was designed and built by Miletus, who was a mathematician and a physicist.  It was built between 532 and 537. It was built immediately after fire destroyed an earlier church on the site during the Nika riot in January 532.

(Nika riot was a revolt that happened in eastern Roman Empire again Justinian’s empire)

·         Hagia Sophia is 270 ft long 240 ft wide

·         Dome is 108 ft Diameter

·         Crown rises from pavement 180 ft

·         First dome collapsed in 558 and was repaired in 9^th and 14^th century

·         Building’s external structure is changed from their original appearance, numerous elements were added

·         Buttresses were added later during the Ottoman reign

·         when Hagia Sophia became a mosque  Turks built four minarets at the corner

·         Building is now a museum

Feature which differentiates Hagia Sophia from Pantheon is the special mystical quality the light flooding the interior. The 40 windows at the base of the dome are the source of light in the building and create a magical effect. 

Byzantine Architecture’s important feature was building of dome on Pendentives and Squinches method.

Pendentives and Squinches (Slide 5-6)

 Manuscripts and Icon Painting

Manuscript painting was an important art form during the Early Byzantine era. This period marked the beginning of icon painting during Byzantine period.

Example 1: Ascension of Christ from Rabbula Gospels (Slide 7)

Background story: Christ rose from the tomb after 3 days and on the 40^th day, ascended from the Mount of Olives to Heaven. The Crucifixion, Resurrection and Ascension are all subjects of full page painting.

In this illustration Ascension of Christ is depicted surrounded by a mandorla. Below Mary and various apostles can be seen. Just below Christ, Theotokos is painted gazing towards viewers

(Theokotos title for Mary, mother of Jesus)

Christ does not rise in a cloud instead he ascends in a mandorla above a fiery winged chariot. The chariot carries the symbols of the four evangelists- the man, lion, ox and eagle.

Icons and Iconoclasm

Gospel books played an important role in monastic religious life. Unfortunately few early icons survive.  Why?

Icons are small portable paintings depicting Christ, the Virgin, saints. Icons survive from as early as 4^th century. From the 6^th century on they became enormously popular in Byzantine worship both public and private. Some icons were believed as “healing powers”.

Icons were not accepted universally. Some of the Christian parties were suspicious of the practice of imaging the divine, whether on portable panels, on the walls of the churches etc.

Iconoclasm

Opposition to icons became strong in the 8^th century when the faithful knelt before the icons in prayer to seek protection or a cure for illness.

Example of Icons

Virgin and Child between Saints Theodore and George- 6^th –early 7^th c (slide 8)

          

Middle Byzantine

In the late 8^th, 9^th century, a reaction against “iconoclasm” spread. Saint John of Damascus (675-749) was the one who raised voice and argued that God made an image of himself in his son Jesus and in humankind. Thus icons were the likeness of hole figures and not making them means opposing God’s actions.

During this time period Macedonian Dynasty took the responsibility of reviving icon making from Early Byzantine art.  Basil I was the head of new dynasty, who regarded himself as the restorer of the Roman Empire.  Because of Iconoclasm Byzantine artists moved towards West and they found employment at the courts of Germanic Kings and influenced Western European art. But when icon making got support Byzantine mural painters, mosaics, book illustrators, ivory carvers, metal workers once again received commissions. Basil I and his successors also undertook the repair of churches which iconoclasts defaced.

Example 1: Virgin and Child enthroned, apse mosaic, Hagia Sophia, 867 

Macedonian dynasty dedicated a new mosaic in Hagia Sophia depicting the enthroned Virgin with the Christ child in her lap. This figure is 16 ft tall. There is an inscription now fragmentary means “pious emperors” referring to the Macedonian. This was commissioned to replace the “imposters” the iconoclasts had destroyed.

Some other mosaic paintings include

Example 2: Christ as Pantokrator, dome mosaic in the church of the Dormition, Daphni, Greece, 1090-1100

This mosaic was restored in the 19^th century. Pantokrator means “ruler of all” in Greek but in Christianity it was referred to Christ. Here the portrait was made on the inner side of Rome. The image was painted on the top to show a connection between man and the heaven. (slide 9)

Another mosaic example found on the east wall of south gallery of Hagia Sophia was about the 11^th c Byzantine empress Zoe Porphyrogenita. (slide 10)

In this example portrait of Zoe and her husband flanked the enthroned Christ. The emperor holds a purse, signifying the generous donation Constantine made to the church. Zoe holds a scroll also a reference to her gifts to the church. Inscription next to the portraits describe Constantine as “pious emperor and King of the Romans” and Zoe as “pious empress”

Middle Byzantine artists also produced carved ivories in large numbers. Triptych was much in fashion rather than diptych.

Example 3: Harbvilee Triptych: Christ enthroned with saints ca. 950, Ivory 

It was used for private devotion. Three part shrine with looser classical stances, in contrast to the Byzantine style.  

One of the famous wall paintings from that time period was “Lamentation”  It is an image of passionate grief over the dead Christ. The artist captured Christ followers in attitudes, expressions and gestures of quite human bereavement. Joseph of Arimathea and the disciple Nikodemus kneel at his feet. Mary presses her cheek against her dead son’s face. Saint John clings to Christ’s left hand. Neither John nor Mary was present at the entombment of Christ.

Example 4: Vladimir Virgin. Late 11^th c or early 12^th c. tempera on wood

It was the most renowned Middle Byzantine icon produced in Russia. Unfortunately the revered image has been repainted many times, and only traces of the original surface remain. It clearly reveals the stylized abstraction resulting from centuries of working and reworking the devotional image. Probably the work of a painter from Constantinople, The Vladimir Virgin displays all characteristics of the Byzantine icon of the Virgin and Child. Russians believed that the sacred picture saved the city of Kazan from the later Tartar invasions.  

Late Byzantine Art

During the 14^th and 15^th century, artists throughout the Byzantine world produced masterpieces of mural and icon painting rivaling those of the earlier periods.

Example 1: Anastasis, fresco in the apse of the parakklesion of the Church of Christ in Chora, 1310-1320 ca. (slide 11)

A fresco of the Anastasis (side chapel in this instance a funerary chapel) of the Church of Christ in Chora in Constantinople.

Anastasis is here central to a cycle of pictures portraying the themes of human morality. Christ raises Adam and Eve from their tombs. Looking on are John the Baptist, King David and King Solomon on the left and various martyr saints on the right. The figures float in a spiritual atmosphere, space less and without material mass or shadow casting volume. 

Another example notable for the lavish use of finely etched silver foil to frame the painted figure of Christ as Savior of Souls dates to the beginning of the 14^th century. It comes from the church of Saint Clement at Ohrid in Macedonia, where many Late Byzantine icons imported from the capital have been preserved.

Example 2: Christ as Savior of Souls, icon from Saint Clement, Ohrid, Macedonia, early 14^th c, Tempera, linen and silver on wood

Illustrated Manuscripts: Akbar's Reign

Hey there friends :) hope you are all doing well. Here i am with a new post, It is about Illustrated Manuscripts from Akbar's reign. I hope you will like it.

Illustrated Manuscripts: Akbar's Reign

The illustrated manuscript is an Indian Painting format which was introduced later than murals or cloth paintings. The earliest known illustrated books were made from talipot palm leaves dated 11th century.  There was a different way to bind these pages. Once they were complete they were stacked and strung on one or two cords. The top and bottom sides were used to cover with wooden covers. This style of manuscript was given a special name known as pothi.[1]

Palm Leaf Manuscripts       

            The earliest form of manuscripts were palm leaf manuscripts which were produced during Pala Dynasty. These were the simplified and reduced form of the Classical Indian Style seen at the Ajanta caves and were produced for Buddhist monasteries of Bihar and Bengal. The subject matter of these paintings were iconic representations of Buddhist deities. Placement of these paintings differ accordingly to the size of the manuscript. Sometimes a single painting was placed in the middle of the page and sometimes two or three paintings were placed in the center of the page. Further these illustrations were adorned with geometrical patterns and arabesque designs.[2]

            Many of the Pala paintings have a focal point which was either a figure of a deity or other important figures. Pictorial elements are painted in vibrant red, blue, yellow, white and green outlined in black or another colour. Stippling and tonal variation in these manuscripts use to suggest  light, shade and volume. The earliest manuscript of Pala dynasty dates about 1000c.[3] 

            After Pala's, Jain's also patronized illustrated manuscripts based on their canonical and non canonical literature. These texts were based on two subject matters, first Mahapurana which contained  biographical account of Jain saints and other was Kalpasutra , which was their Book of Rituals. Earliest manuscript that survived during the Jain period belonged to 11th and 12th century. Jain illustrations were painted on a square panel which was of the folio height and was placed on the front and back off the manuscript as its cover. Influences of Western Indian Style were seen in the energetic line, flat pictorial space, limited palette and angular humans. During the 1400 century paper replaced palm leaf and became the favourite medium for Jain manuscripts. At first these paper manuscripts were a copy of palm leaf but later in 1500 c. these manuscripts became shorter and broader. However, paper became the favourite medium and numerous works were done on it but due to other circumstances Jain Dynasty declined in 1550 and 1750.[4]

            Western Indian style was not only practiced in Jain manuscripts but during the 15^th and early 16^th century painters from North and West India practiced the newly added modes of painting. All these modes were given names for identification. One of these was purely Indian style Caurapancashika. This style was complimented because of its flat pictorial space, rigid compositions, vibrant palette and figures set against solid colour ground to depict Hindu subjects.[5]

            According to J. Losty

These works are more like picture books with accompanying texts than true illuminated manuscripts. Their illustrations are rendered in different variations on the Caurapancashika style, some more sophisticated than others. Most probably, differences in patronage, artist, region or period account for these variations.[6]

Apart from Western India and Caurapanchasika style there were painters in North India (Deccan) who created the third mode of painting which was called Pre- Mughal/ Indo- Persian or Sultanate style. This type of painting was not consist of one style rather multiple styles produced by Indian artists who were inspired by Persian artists. From 13^th - 17^th c Indo- Persian painters were patronized by Indian Muslim rulers, noble men etc. During these years they produced copies of Quran with elegant scripts, embellished with abstract designs along with poetic and other secular texts. Nimat'nama is one of the beautiful illustrated Indo- Persian manuscript (Book of Delicacies), a compendium of recipes. It was begun for Sultan Ghyath ad Din Khilji (1469-1501). This manuscript was completed by his son Nasir ad Din (1501-1521). Nimat'nama combine a provincial interpretation of Persian painting with various Indian pictorial elements like profile views, stylistic features and figure types.[7] 

Illustration during Mughal Period: Akbar

            Mughal Dynasty is known for its contribution towards the development of art and architecture. The dynasty was founded in 1526 by Babur, a Central Asian invader and ruled the subcontinent until 1858. This period was basically an amalgamation of Islamic, Hindu and European culture. Under Mughal rule book illustrations and architecture were the most worked subject matters. For book illustrations numerous schools were built where several artists use to sit supervised by senior painter and prepare manuscripts. Mughal school confined itself to portraying the somewhat materialistic life of the court, with its state functions, processions, hunting expeditions. While on the other hand Rajput painters who lived in totally different environment, work for Hindu patrons, pictured scenes from the Indian classics, domestic subjects and illustrations of life.[8]

            Akbar had noticed the magnificent architecture of Bukhara and Samarqand which Timurid's had build and attracted numerous people which gained them popularity. Akbar was inspired by their heritage and he decided in order to encourage art and literature he need to develop a place where art activities will be done. Finally with the help of architects and engineers Fatehpur Sikri was built between 1571- 1573. When Fatehpur Sikri was built, a large number of painters were employed and were accommodated in the studio.[9]

            Many artists, craftsmen and literati came from Iran. Mughal school of painting developed its origin under Akbar's reign. Artists who work under the royal workshop at Fatehpur Sikri were Persians, South Asian Muslims and Hindus. They had an emphasis on naturalism which was not seen in earlier manuscripts.[10]

            Akbar was deeply interested in other religions and regions specifically Indian and Christian. Numerous priests used to visit Akbar's court and he even translated Sanskrit text into Persian. The earliest example is "Arrival of Nanda and his family in Brindaban", from an imperial copy of Harivamsha. This copy was illustrated twice during Akbar's reign. The first set of Harivamsha paintings was appended to an illustrated copy of the Razm-nama (Mahabharta) finished about 1586. Shortly after that date, about 1586-90, a second copy was illustrated. Though only twenty eight leaves survived today.[11]

            These earliest projects undertaken were of uneven quality and unresolved style but soon the delicate and graceful style of Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad influenced Mughal painting. However some Indian artists joined Akbar's court who were previously working with Western Indian styles. These Indian artists brought skills with them which gave a new touch to Mughal painting e.g. compositional impact, expressive gestures, figures and forceful colours.

Illustrated Manuscripts under Akbar's reign were

·         Timur nama

·         Tuti nama

·         Akbar nama

·         Babar nama

·         Hamza nama

·         Changiz nama

          In Akbar-nama the emperor wanted to glorify his rule and in Timur-nama of 1584-85, Changiz-nama 1596, he hoped to legitimize the Mughals as great Muslim dynasty by connecting them with the Timurids and the Mongols.

Tuti-nama

            The tuti-nama or Tales of Persian text is a 14^th century Persian series of fifty two stories, contained within a larger story about a parrot and myna, owned by a young merchant. According to the text merchant had to go on a journey and instructed his wife not to do anything without seeking guidance of the birds. Shortly after her husband's departure, the wife fell in love with a beautiful youth. One night, she seeks permission from myna, to visit her love but when the bird refused she killed it. Next, the wife sought the consent of the parrot. The clever parrot solved this dilemma by telling its mistress an enchanting story each night so that she would stay at home rather than visiting her love. After fifty two nights, the merchant returned home and the parrot reported to him what happened. the angry man killed his wife and never re-married.[12] 

 Akbar-nama

This book was commissioned by Akbar himself by his court historian and biographer, Abu al Fazl. It was written in Persian and includes vivid and detailed descriptions of his life and time. Abu al Fazl intended to chronicle Akbar's life in four volumes but the later emperor Jahangir, was so jealous of the relationship between his father and Abu al Fazl that he killed painter. Because of this incident the intended fifth volume Ain e Akbari, 1598 was presented to Akbar that became the third volume of the manuscript.[13]   

             The illustrations in the royal Akbar-nama are much more than simple illustrations. Some of the  major events were included such as Akbar's visit to the shrine of Muin ud Din Chisti at Ajmer.Another manuscript from Akbar-nama was when Abu al Fazl visited Akbar and presents Akbar-nama. (figure 7). The first volume of Akbar-nama deals with the birth of Akbar, the history of Timur's family, the reigns of Babur and Humayun and the Suri sultans of Delhi. The second volume describes the detailed history of the reign of Akbar till 1602, and records the events during Akbar's reign. It also deals with that how Bairam Khan and Akbar won the battle of Panipat against Hemu an Indian warrior. The third volume is named Ain-e-Akbari, and details the administrative system of the Empire as well as containing the famous "Account of the Hindu Sciences". 

Chagez-nama

            An illustration from Changez-nama shows masterly skills of Baswan, painter from Akbar's school of arts. This illustration is from the portion Jami'al Tawarikh by Rashid al Din (1247-1313) that traces the history of the Changez Khan and the Mongols. Very little is known about the production of Changez-nama. The text pages which carry a colophon mentioning its completion in 1596, as well as ninety eight leaves. According to the text it depicts the destruction of the fort at Alamut by Halagu Khan. This inscription suggests that three different moments are shown, the painting seems to condense them. Halagu Khan dressed in armor and holding a bow in his left hand is sown standing atop the main gateway of the red walled fort attended by a fly whisk bearing servant. His right finger is placed near his teeth in absolute conformity with the text. Below him in the fort, unarmed men tear down Alamut's walls with pickaxes. Three figures in military dress to the left and the right must represent members of Alamut's vanquished army: the two on the right are shown with their hands humbly folded and their faces turned towards Halagu. The one on the left who must be the surrendering Muqaddim, bows slightly with his hands outstretched and palms up as if greeting or entreating the conquering hero. Outside Alamut's walls the spirited army of Halagu Khan, mounted on chargers, ride up the great mountain and across the fort's bridge. One might think that these men are storming Alamut because they brandish their weapons and bear shields; but the ease with which a foot soldier is shown opening the main gate suggests that the men who follow him are simply jubilant victors entering the fort after its defeat.[14]

            This composition reflects Baswan's fascination with the space and depth. The picture is lucidly organized into three distinct planes, foreground, middle ground and background.  These spatial planes are linked together by the files of soldiers who ride across the foreground, advance through the middle ground and end up in the background. The diagonal movement of the troops in the middle ground is particularly effective: it gives the painting a strong feeling of depth. The transition between the three planes are smoothed by a national system of color patterning that enables one's eye to move with a measured rhythm through the densely packed group of soldiers.[15]

            Numerous names of the artists recorded by librarians on paintings in royal manuscripts of the late 1580's and early 1590's proves that the Kitab Kahana has expanded considerably. Method of working might have changed because of the progress. Most of the paintings were done by the two artists, the senior artists designs the composition and his junior does the work.

European Influence: Emphasis on Portraiture

            The new emphasis on portraiture can be connected with the arrival of European bringing Western art.. According to Abu al Fazl portraits have been painted of all His Majesty's servants and a huge book has been made. European delegation visited Akbar's court during 1575, they were called to participate in religious debates. When the Jesuits were asked to explain Christian doctrine to Akbar's children, they showed the children pictures in books. At that time Akbar ordered the court artists to be present and to paint everything. Many engravings were given to Akbar which were later copied by his artists who used tracings to enable them to transfer complete images onto a single page or to insert small details into a different composition. Soon they were able to produce their own illustrations of exotic art but perhaps the most profound Western influence was on portraiture.[16]   

       

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[1] "Introduction," The Met, http://www.metmuseum.org/learn/educators/curriculum-resources/art-of-the-islamic-world/unit-five/chapter-four/introduction (accessed May 22^nd, 2016).

[2]  "Mughal Painting under Akbar: The Melbourne Hamza-nama and Akbar-nama paintings," National Gallery of Victoria, http://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/essay/mughal-painting-under-akbar-the-melbourne-hamza-nama-and-akbar-nama-paintings/

[3] "Mughal Illustrated Manuscripts," History of Mughal Illustrated Manuscripts, http://indianartinfo.wordpress.com/category/mughal-illustrated-manuscripts/ (accessed May 14^th, 2016).

[4] "Page from Harivamsa Manuscript: The Arrival of Nanda and his Family in Vrindavan," VMFA, http://vmfa.museum/collections/art/page-harivamsa-manuscript-arrival-nanda-family-vrindavan/ (accessed May 23^rd, 2016). 

[5]  Susan Stronge, Made for Mughal Emperors (n.c: I.B. Tauris, 2010), 114-115. 

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[6] Joseph M. Dye III, The Arts of India: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts (Richmond: Philip Wilson, 2001), 231

[7] ibid. 232. 

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[8] Joseph M. Dye III, The Arts of India: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts (Richmond: Philip Wilson, 2001), 236. 

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[9] "Mughal Illustrated Manuscripts," Ehtnic Paintings http://www.ethnicpaintings.com/illustrated_manuscripts/mughal/ (accessed May 23^rd, 2016). 

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[10] Joseph M. Dye III, The Arts of India: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts (Richmond: Philip Wilson, 2001), 181.

[11] ibid. 183

[12] Dye, The Arts of India: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 184

[13] Dye, The Arts of India: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts,185

[14] "Miniature Painting," Centre for Cultural Resource and Training, http://ccrtindia.gov.in/miniaturepainting.php  (accessed May 22^nd, 2016).  

[15] Dye, The Arts of India: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 186.

[16]  ibid. 186

Bibliography        

            Desai, Barbara Schmitz and Ziyaauddin A. Mughal and Persian Paintings and Illustrated Manuscripts in the Raza Library. ignca.nic.in/ks_61.htm (accessed May 22, 2016).

            Guy, John. "Mughal Painting under Akbar: The Melbourne Hamza-nama and Akbar- nama paintings ." National Gallery of Victoria. www.ngv.vic.gov.au/essay/mughal-painting-under-akbar-the-melbourne-hamza-nama-and-akbar-nama-paintings/ (accessed May 15th, 2016).

            III, Joseph M. Dye. The Arts of India: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. Richmond: Philip Wilson, 2001.

            Mughal Illustrated Manuscripts. www.ethnicpaintings.com/illustrated_manuscripts/mughal/ (accessed May 21, 2016).

Stronge, Susan. Made for Mughal Emperors: Royal Treaures from Hindustan. I.B Tauris, 2010.

            "The Mughal- era Indian Collection." Chester Betty Library. www.cbi.ie/collections/The-Islmic-Collection/The-Mughal-Era-Indian-Collection.aspx (accessed April 12th, 2016).

            Wilson, R. Pinder. An illustrated Mughal Manuscipt from Ahmadabad. www.islamicmanuscripts.info/refrence/books/Pinder-Wilson-1969-Paintings/Pinder-Wilson-1969-Painitngs-160-171-Pinder-Wilson.pdf (accessed May 16th , 2016).

Cubism and Mansoor Rahi

Hi Friendsss,

So today am sharing some information regarding Cubism and Mansoor Rahi.

Mansur Rahi and Cubism

Cubism was one of the most influential visual art styles of the early twentieth century Avant Guarde art movement. It was started by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in Paris between 1907 and 1914. Because of a French art critic Vauxcelles comment on Brauqe's landscapes in 1908 the movement gained the name "Cubism", he called those geometric shapes were "cubes".

In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted form, instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context.

Cubist basically rejected the concept of copying from nature, or creating any perspective, foreshortening in the painting. Rather they felt that one should only focus on the main object, the two dimensionality of the canvas should be treated.

Cubism was further divided into various periods depending on the paintings made during that time.

·         Cezannian Cubism (1908 -1909)

This early phase of the movement came in the wake of the Paul Cézanne retrospective in 1907

·         Analytic Cubism (1910- 1912)

In this phase, Cubism developed in a highly systematic fashion. Later to be known as the Analytic period of the style, it was based on close observation of objects in their background contexts, often showing them from various vantage points.

·         Synthetic Cubism (c. 1912 - c. 1914)

In 1912 both Picasso and Braque began to introduce foreign elements into their compositions, continuing their experiments with multiple perspectives. Picasso incorporated wall paper, thus initiating Cubist collage, and Braque began to glue newspaper to his canvases, beginning the movement's exploration of papier-colle.

·         Crystal Cubism (1915 -1922)                                                                    

Cubism spread quickly throughout Europe in the 1910s, as much because of its systematic approach to rendering imagery as for the openness it offered in depicting objects in new ways. Critics were split over whether Cubists were concerned with representing imagery in a more objective manner - revealing more of its essential character - or whether they were principally interested in distortion and abstraction. The movement not only spread in Europe but its traces can be seen in artworks by Pakistani artists.

In the fifties a great change started to play its role in the art community of Pakistan when the artists took a great step forward from the orientalism towards the modernism. The next generation was looking forward to the modern tendencies of art. Just like Picasso and Braque in Pakistan Shakir Ali and Mansoor Rahi, were one of the pioneers, who made a daring step forward by introducing modernism to the art of Pakistan in the shape of cubism.

Mansur Rahi was born in 1939 in West Bengal and graduated from Govt. College of Art and Craft in Dhaka. As the cubism discard traditional perspective theory, in Rahi's work one can easily spot the subject matter. Traces of cubism in his work can be traced back to the 1959 period when he did a portrait study. During this time period Rahi was residing in Karachi and his initial work was inspired by Zain al Abedin, his teacher. Zainul Abedin was motivated by social and political events and this early period in Rahi’s career demonstrates a greater focus on thematic content such that social and political issues also became a major concern for him.  According to him his representational as well as non-representational abstract works manifest an imitation of his life. Another characteristic that strikes a similar chord between his work and that of his teacher Zainul Abedin, is the presence of a bold and clear outline.
In 1983 when Rahi shifted from Karachi to Islamabad that period was marked as the most peaceful of his life as can be seen in his artworks from this period. Subject matter of beauty and romance was to be seen in his artworks.
Rahi’s paintings and drawings depict abstraction yet the visual imagery remains representational, which marks another difference between his early work in Karachi and his later work in Islamabad. Such dissimilarities are amalgamated through an essence of Cubism that runs through his entire body of work, creating interplay of opposites.

One of Rahi's painting titled as " Peace" dated 1969. In this painting a child and a man is shown in geometrical shapes. However the background is treated in Synthetic Cubist manner. Here the flat areas are painted and treated as if cut out from paper and placed, overlapping each other.

His work is highly inspired by Cubism movement and as one can see various sub divisions in Cubism, Rahi's work is also divided into sub categories according to his artwork.

·         Academic Realism 1957

In this time period Rahi was doing portraits and landscapes, both in different styles, Here his landscapes were more carefree and portrait painting more careful.

·         Cubical Analytic Fractionism 1968

In this time period Rahi was focusing on global subjects such as the world food crisis, quest for peace and fear of nuclear war.

One of Rahi's painitng "The Thinker" belongs to his analytical cubism period. In this artwork one can see all the characteristics like thick outline, geometrical composition, monochromatic work, focus on the main object and no sense of perspective.

This painting is composed of a man sitting in three quarter pose on some platform. The figure painted here is life size touching the edges of the canvas. The whole figure is composed on a two dimensional surface and the lack of perspective shows that artist wanted to focus only on his subject rather than the other details. Apart from the figure the focal area is the hands of the man which bear the most light and are humongous in size, though not disturbing the composition. The colour palette Rahi used here is monochromatic and can be said it belongs to his "Red Series" just like Picasso had painted numerous series of single shade. (figure 1)

·         Organical Mysticism 1973

His series of mysticism is own finding of spiritual concern of knowledge by isolating the mind from non-organic to spiritual beliefs. 

In  one of his painting from the Organical Mysticism series Rahi's dark colour palette was revealed. The composition shows a lot of movement but there is no flowy line, however the curves at certain areas are visible to the viewer. Artist has used the same cubist style to build up his figures but the curves at certain areas of the figure define the female contours. Colour palette is also monochrome here but tinge of reds and yellows are also visible which shows Rahi's interest in adding color to his painting as finishing touches. (figure 2)

·         Rayonistic Cubical Formalism 1979

In this time period Rahi started painting with geometric shapes, where he created illusion of values to open vision of free expression with spontaneous use of brush strokes along with addition of tints and shades.

In one of Rahi's painting from this series represents two figures standing facing each other. In this artwork artist has used the background space  and created some images but still there is not much visible sense of perspective. The whole composition is done with geometric shapes defining the contours of both the figures. Colours which Rahi was using separately in previous of his artworks like reds and blues, here now combined creating further shades. As compared to his Organical Mysticism period in this artwork figures are more solidly drawn and painted.(figure 3)

·         Neo-Precisionist 1990

Artworks from this period shows vast variety of subject matter and color palette. Rahi was quiet restricted in this previous artworks as only using monochromatic tones or a tinge of shades but in this time period artist painted with variety of shades along with black and white shades which reveals his masterly skill of drawing. In these artworks subject matter was not only limited to figures, horses were also to be seen. One of his horse painting represents thick bold strokes, less geometric shapes. While viewing the painting one can see that blues and reds are the dominant colours in Rahi's artworks. (figure 4) 

One of Rahi's drawing from 1998 explains about his control on line, thick brush strokes and flexibility in his hand. (figure 5) This drawing might belong to his practicing pieces as there is no such background, only the life size figure is done with brush stroke.

Mansoor Rahi’s paintings not only create an attitude of transforming new forms and illusion of values but also open a vision of free expression with spontaneous use of brush strokes. His present day work titled ‘Resurrect Rock Series’ in color and black and white starts in USA. It makes a change of vision by entering into classical realism from the non-evocative abstraction.

 

Figure 1

The Thinker, 1968

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2

Painting from Organical Mysticism

Figure 3

Painting from Rayonistic Cubical Formalism

1987

Figure 4

Painting from Neo-Precisionist

1990

Figure 5

Painting from Neo-Precisionist

1990